The death of John “Red Shirt” Davis, an African American from Georgia, seemed to be a very routine shooting for the Coolemee police. Though the death of Davis was not something the police were happy about, it seemed to be necessary because Davis had resisted arrest, according to the Raleigh Observer. The police officer who shot him was Special Officer Jess Saunders. According to Officer Saunders, “the man was shot when he reached for a hip pocket in what the officer thought was an attempt to draw a weapon.” Because the officers had discovered a quart of whiskey in Davis’s house, they felt he was going to draw a weapon on them. Early on in the case, “a coroner’s jury headed by coroner W.E. Kennen exonerated the officer, but when the body was being prepared for burial a second bullet hole was found in the Negro’s back.” With the discovery of this new evidence it would lead one to think that the coroner’s jury ruling would have been changed or overturned. Though Mr. Davis was killed under the assumption he had a concealed weapon, the Davie County police released that “this was the first man killed by Davie county Officers in more than 40 years.”

The death of a black man by a police officer was nothing new to black folks in 1933. However sad, this was an accepted fact of life for many black people in the United States, and especially those who lived in the South. While life in the United States for a black person was hard, it was nowhere harder than in the South, especially after the rebirth of the Klan in the 1920s and new sense of white supremacy. Whites wanted to keep a social order with them on top and blacks below and they were willing to do anything, however deadly, to maintain this. In many Southern states “physical assault against blacks was also a feature of the social order” says Herbert Shapiro. The violence against blacks sometimes went farther than just assault.

With the rebirth of the Klan also came the rebirth of fear among blacks for their safety and their lives. Once the Klan came back one of their main goals as Richard Schaeffer says was “to deal with a host of changes in the ‘American Way,’ including immigration of aliens to the United States and migration from rural South to the Northern cities of Negroes.” The way the Klan dealt with these changes were they began to lynch and once again instill fear. This resulted in many needless deaths of blacks, with stories of men being stolen from prisons with the assistance of police officers. While it was not uncommon for police to provide the suspect to the Klan, it was very common for those very Klansmen to be police officers.

“In many places there are plenty of industrious and accomplished women who are skillful with the needle, or in the kitchen, and who could make many a nice things the public would like to have if there was only some way in which they could be got before the public.” The Augusta Women’s Exchange, noted the Atlanta Constitution, provided women with the means. “For the fee of one dollar per year any woman could send her work to the exchange to be sold without the need to reveal herself to the purchaser.”

The exchange was so successful that many women were able to work off their debts and have consistent enough business to support themselves and their families. Also, the paper suggested, some women who did not need to support their families found a way to earn their own money for such things as: “pin money for church, for summer trips, or to indulge in some of the fads women love.” The author went on to describe additional benefits the exchange offered.  For example, the woman in charge of running the exchange received a good salary something that at the time was very rare. Also, it allowed the women the ability to use their skills to their advantage while staying inside the bounds of their domestic sphere.

Women of the late nineteenth century had very few avenues available to them for earning a substantial amount of money. However, the Augusta Women’s Exchange allowed the women of the city to use their skills to produce profit. During the nineteenth century, women were confined to a specific social sphere, one that dealt with domestic affairs. This provided very little means for women to take care of themselves and or their families other than just keeping house.

Contrary to the article’s author, the idea of the women’s sphere was becoming increasingly less attainable because of the changing times. In the post-Civil War era there were numerous factors that helped bring about this shift of spheres. For instance, historian Anne Scott explained that the readjustment of the economy, the fact that poverty was everywhere, and the war itself all greatly influenced the need for women to earn money. More specifically, Scott proposed, that the war “had created a generation of women without men.” According to historian, Jacqueline Jones, however, these hardships have always been the case for black women.  This concept of the woman’s domestic sphere was not the reality for most women. Many women, like the ones mentioned in the article, did not have the luxury to earn money purely for the pleasure of purchasing trinkets. Most women had to earn money in order to help their families survive.

“The key to success for our race depends not on uprising and quarrels, but on the obedience to law and order.” Doctor W.M. Alexander echoed these words throughout a congregation of 500 prominent African American men at a conference in Wilmington. During the discussions on lynching and the crime rate among African Americans, Alexander argued to his constituents that submission to law was the foundation for success upon which the race stood. Touching upon the progression of their race, Alexander also explored the fact that the lynching and burning of black men was not strictly confined to the Southern states.

Alexander exclaimed that the “most shameful and degrading” reports of lynching belonged not the South, but in Pennsylvania. As the temperance movement was coming to fruition in America, African American disenfranchisement further increased. Consequently, according to the New Georgia Encyclopedia, “prohibition of alcoholic drink became intertwined with Black disenfranchisement and subordination.” Doctor Alexander began to tell stories of black liquor runners in Pennsylvania who were caught by white men and brutally murdered without a proper trial. The victims were subjugated to burning, lynching, torture, and even castration. “The mutilation and castration of lynching victims brought into explicit focus,” wrote historian Jacqueline Jones, the further racial violence towards African Americans.

Doctor Alexander sought to reveal to his peers in Wilmington that disobedience of laws, especially prohibition, could not sustain dominance if the race was to advance and succeed in a society already against them. Wilmington, like many other Southern cities, saw many prominent upper-class African Americans rise to leadership during the Jim Crow era. “In this period, a small but significant number of affluent blacks were becoming increasingly visible. Doctors, lawyers, real estate owners, insurance executives, bankers, college professors and well-to-do ministers constituted Atlanta’s black upper class,” wrote historian Tera W. Hunter. These visible leaders took it upon themselves to be prototypes of successful, valuable members of American society to which the black working class could look for guidance. The overwhelming central message of these pioneers was social order and control. Alexander, like many of his fellow leaders, sought to show his constituents that revolt and riots against the government were not the road toward complete freedom and success. W.M. Alexander taught that obedience to law and order was in fact the means for advancing the black race.

Goldsboro inhabitants were shocked at the condition of the African American “Exodusters” coming through town in December 1879. There were some 139 blacks traveling in this group, all shabbily dressed, according to the Raleigh Observer. The paper reported their departure with a hint of contempt and disgust, as if the fact that blacks were unhappy with their living conditions was something unheard of in the years following Emancipation. According to the Raleigh Observer, this was not the first time that residents of Goldsboro, North Carolina, had this problem of northern-bound blacks temporarily invading their town. “It will be remembered that, “the author noted,” a few weeks since we spoke of the feelings of the colored people of Wake towards the exodus movement.” This new motley crew of blacks, however, had hailed from Green Castel in hopes of making their way north in search of new jobs and living opportunities. “The crew had an array of colors, sexes and ages, from those still suckling to a ripe old age.” The group had no designated leader and seemed to be completely unorganized, and not well educated. Though this crew had aspirations of the great life the North had to offer, many of the blacks did not have sufficient train fare to reach these far-off places. Many had to settle with going to Indiana or Washington, whereas others could only afford to go to the next town.

The white people of Goldsboro were not the only people or town to have an experience with these “Exodusters.” In the years following emancipation, many blacks did not know what to do with themselves. This was most prevalent in the year 1877. As Nell Irvin Painter explains, “by 1877, thousands of ex-slaves realized they never could fulfill their aspirations in the South- aspirations for their own farms, an education for their children, and a comfortable life.” So in the late 1870s many blacks began to migrate from states all over the South, such as Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Tennessee, and many more places. They planned to rebuild in Kansas, where, Historian Glen Schwendmann said, “‘they believed’ they would be furnished free transportation, where farm, implements, and subsistence awaited all who succeeded in making an appearance.”

The “Exodusters” of 1879 were part of the black migration trying to find and build new opportunities for themselves. Many whites did not understand why many blacks would want to leave the situations they were in; because many whites felt ex-slaves should be happy enough having their freedom.  This, however, was not the case; as Painter suggests, many blacks just wanted the opportunity to provide themselves with the tools to survive in a world still dominated by their white oppressors.

"I am ready to allow, Mr. President, that both Great Britain and France, have given us abundant cause for war." These were the words of General German in the United State Senate that was displayed by the press in Spooner's Vermont Journal. The war described here is the War of 1812, where both Great Britain and France attempted to bully the United States into trade allegiances with either nation. In order for America to maintain neutrality, it was necessary to display its military strength. A country that cannot defend itself against foreign powers will not carry respect from those powers. Because of this it, was necessary to declare war on Great Britain.

Great Britain had been in at war with France for several years across numerous conflicts. After the Revolutionary War, America had a need to remain neutral in order to strengthen its economy and infrastructure; this made trade across the Atlantic Ocean with various European countries was vital. Both France and Great Britain were among America's largest trading partners. With the conflict between these nations, Britain required resources and economic support. This need, combined with Britain's little respect for the fledging United States, drove them to bully and restrict America to trading solely with them. They had several ways of accomplishing this. Some of the most notable ways of accomplishing this were blockading French ports to American trading ships and conducting impressments of American merchant sailors. After much debate by Congress, the conclusion was made that because of these among various other violations against America as a neutral nation, the only way to maintain independence was to declare war on Great Britain. The War of 1812 lasted from 1812 to 1815 and was generally considered a stalemate.

American forces throughout the war did not gain significant victory against Britain's colonies in Canada, and after America successfully repelled Britain's invasions on her native soil the war ended in a draw. With the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, a status quo antebellum was declared, both ending the war and returning all lands to the pre-war holders. While the war had little initial effect, its results could be seen in the years to come with greater respect from Great Britain toward America as a sovereign, neutral nation.

The American Board of Commissioners met on October 6, 1875, to discuss foreign religious missions. The meetings were held every day and lasted for about one week. The committee consisted of 207 members, of whom 116 were clergymen and ninety-one were laymen. Inside the Board there was another committee that handled all expenses and missionary affairs. That committee was called the Prudential Committee. This committee included nine to ten people who were appointed by members of the board. Secretary Nathaniel G. Clark presented the report on the foreign field. His report said that the number of churches had increased across the country since last year, and the number of Native Americans who had taken Christianity as their main religion had increased as well. Also, four missionaries had passed away while on their missions in foreign countries. The missions that were still in progress were in countries such as Turkey, India, North China, Western Mexico, Spain, and Austria. The main objective of the missionaries was to spread the word of God to the people of the country and convert them to Protestantism. "Most of these pastors are exceeding our expectations," one member of the committee said. In other areas of the country, there were other missionary groups trying to spread to the word of the Lord. In Illinois, the Central Illinois Presbyterians and the Episcopal Board of Missions encouraged people to come and visit their churches if they so desired.

Each mission had its own goal; that goal was to convert most of the citizens of the country that they were in to Protestantism. Each mission that was launched was coordinated on a national basis. These theories were unsuccessful and because of their failures, mission conferences were started. The first missionary conference was held in New York City in 1854. Most Americans were aware of the missions that were taking place but did not get involved. They felt this way because only certain Americans were missionaries. The Americans who were not missionaries felt that it was the duty of the actual missionaries themselves to take care of the responsibilities of the mission.

Little Chief of the Cheyenne Indian tribe once said, "I'd rather die than conform to the white man's way." On the morning of May 19, 1879, Secretary of Interior Carl Schurz spoke to the Cheyenne Indians and their leader, Little Chief. Little Chief was old and spoke for the Cheyenne Indians, while the five other tribe members, being very young, listened. Schurz had told Little Chief, "the game has disappeared, and the time had passed when the Indians could live without work: that Sitting Bull's people, who were in Canada, and many of them were crossing the line and coming to the agencies for food." Little Chief then said, "I'd rather die than conform to the white man's way." As Schurz went on, Little Chief then saw that the whites were as numerous as the leaves of the forest, and if the Indians continued their old ways, they would be crowded off their lands.

Indians were once thought as savages across the Americas, but really they were the backbone of American culture. During the colonial era, Indians taught the English how to hunt for game, plan crops, and basically survive. Yet the English repaid Native Americans' assistance with violence. Throughout American history, Indians have been massacred for no reason, and banished from American culture. History has taught that Indians helped Americans with trade, food, and other resources to help them survive in an era when there was no hope for Native Americans, themselves, to survive.

No issue has plagued Indian-white relations as much as property or territorial rights. According to historian Vine Deloria, "United States law and the courts have substantially failed to protect Indian lands from arbitrary confiscations, partitioning, bureaucratic control, and treaty violations." Congressional efforts of this era provided individual rights for Indians apart from their tribal identity in that they "centered on distribution of property rather than on the articulation of traditional liberties." Court rulings resolved many problems between the two cultures over the years, but many unresolved issues still remain.

The United States Congress outlawed the African slave trade in 1808, but there were some who still took part in the slave trade, knowing it was illegal. Some southerners even talked about reviving the slave trade in the mid-1850s, but most Americans opposed this idea, and numerous slave smugglers were put on trial in the United States. According to the New York Herald, "the United States considered slave trafficking legal but the laws considered it piracy." During the Revolution it was a fact that the American Colonies were involved in the slave trafficking, but at that point all nations considered it legal. By the middle of the nineteenth century, many western nations opposed the slave trade.

Before 1808, Congress could not prohibit Americans from participating in the slave trade, but they did pass a law, in 1794, that the owners of American vessels caught engaging in any slave trafficking would be fined two thousand dollars and forfeit their vessel. In 1800, Congress changed the fine to one thousand dollars and added two years imprisonment for anybody present on the vessel while participating in slave trafficking. In 1818, the laws changed dramatically: any captain caught carrying any person of color for enslaving would forfeit not only his ship but also the cargo on the vessel. The American and British navies worked to limit the number of ships transporting slaves to Central and South America, but with limited success. Between 1794 and 1840 thousands of slaves were imported into Brazil and Cuba; some smugglers even brought African slaves into North America, where prices for slaves rose dramatically during the 1850s.

]]> http://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/4559 Date: January, 1833 to December, 1833
Location: PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania
Tags: Abolition, Slavery
Course: "American Civilizations to 1877," University of North Carolina at Pembroke

William Wilberforce was only one among many men who south to abolish the transatlantic slave trade throughout his lifetime. He was a British politician who began his political career by becoming an independent member of Parliament for Yorkshire, where he learned how to debate and express ideas. During his time there, he also became an evangelistic Christian. He grew eager to spread his new religion and assert its incompatibility with slavery. Wilberforce agreed with the Philadelphia National Enquirer that, "slavery takes away the key of knowledge, withholds the Holy Scriptures, crushes the intellect of God's intelligent creatures, and exposes to insult without protection." His dear friends, James Ramsay, shared unbelievable stories of his work on slave ships, stories that horrified Wilberforce. He became restless for the chance to save innocent human beings who were treated like animals.

Inspired by his faith and the knowledge he had gained through his political career, Wilberforce decided it was time to promote change. He and a group of abolitionists promoted the idea to stop the transportation of slaves, which would hopefully lead to the complete abolition of slavery. Without slave ships and trade ports, slaves could not be transported anywhere, and many people would lose their jobs.Wilberforce, supported by his group of abolitionists, introduced the idea to stop the transatlantic slave trade to Parliament in 1787.During the twenty years that it took to get Parliament's approval to stop the transatlantic slave trade, Wilberforce grew tired, and the effects began to show in his physical health. On March 25, 1807, the Slave Trade Act was finally passed. Wilberforce lived the rest of his life fighting for the complete abolition of slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 abolished all slavery in the British Empire. William Wilberforce died just three days later.

The success of abolition in the British Empire shocked American slaveholders. Plantation economies in America were built on strong slave labor and slaves were used to produce cotton, sugar, and tobacco. They were an important resource to keep agricultural production going. Even though the United States Congress abolished the slave trade in 1808, slaves were reproducing in American and by the 1850s were at an all time high. It was the American Civil War, rather than an act of Congress, that brought the end of slavery in the United States.

"Two of the nominees are negroes," is a statement not heard in everyday life. Today it is not that big of a deal that a black man is running for president, or for any office in the government. However, one hundred and fifty years ago, a black man was not even considered a person, much less someone who could run for political office, especially Secretary of State. Fredrick Douglass, a former slave, was about to change all that. Facing much persecution, he ran for the office Secretary of State of New York in 1855. This idea had been opposed by many. As it is said in the Macon Weekly Telegraph, "the whole thing is supremely ridiculous and can only issue in increasing the feeling in New York against this class of people." Most did not think or believe that a black man should be allowed to hold such a position.

Douglass's race would be a big issue in his run for office. In the mid 1800's a black person was not considered a whole person, much less a candidate for a government office. Under the Constitution an African American was only considered three-fifths of a person, and was sold like property. Also, most African Americans had limited access to education. As a former slave, Douglass taught himself how to read and write in many different ways. He educated himself and then escaped to freedom. After he became free, Douglass became an abolitionist, fighting to end slavery for all blacks. He would play a huge role as one of the few abolitionists who had actually been through slavery before. This would help him in his run for office. It allowed people to know his name, and know what he stood for before he ran.

Douglass's run for high office brought him a lot of unwanted attention, though. The more people who became informed of Douglass's goal, the more people who would try to stop his progress. It is written in the Macon Weekly Telegraph, "if the Negroes cannot vote, they can be voted for and if under a social ban, they can be ennobled." But since blacks could not vote yet, Douglass had to rely on whites to vote him into office, and the chances of a white man voting for a former slave, or any black man, seemed impossible. Although Douglass did not receive the position of Secretary of State that he longed for, he did write books about his life. He wrote about his thoughts, his slavery, and his freedom using what education he gathered through the years. After documented his life as a slave and made aware of many of the brutal things that slaves had to do, he used his writings to help end slavery.